HISTORY OF THE ROCKFISH FISHERY______________

Rockfishes have been taken as a means of subsistence for perhaps thousands of years by coastal Native American tribes. The commercial fishery for rockfishes, as we know it today, began sometime in the early to mid 1800s in California. In 1873 in Monterey, "red rockfish" were commanding the "high price" of six cents per pound, cleaned. San Francisco was the primary market for fish on the West Coast even as late as 1887, and declines in some species were beginning to be seen even then. Fishers utilizing seines, gill nets, and hook-and-line gear were finding it difficult to make a living because "the profit is very small, as the Bay has been almost depleted of fish" Goode, 1887). Prior to World War II landings in central California averaged abo5lt 5 million pounds a year, with the fishery experiencing heavy influence from market demands and being conducted primarily from two- to three-person boats using longline gear. 

 A rapid expansion of the fishery occurred during WWII due to an increased demand in conjunction with the development and introduction of the balloon trawl net in 1943. By 1945, landings in California reached 13 million pounds and peaked in 1958 at 18 million, partially as a result of the use of otter-trawls. Over time the fishing industry gradually
moved north, and by 1930 otter trawls were being used extensively in Puget Sound; by 1940 in other areas of Washington and Oregon as well. Mr. George Muscovita was the first person to trawl off the coast of Oregon in 1939 and he states that "at that point in time there was no market for any groundlish in this area, they were all sold for mink food." (G. Muscovita pers. comm.). The fishery for "unmarketable" trawl-caught species of rockfish as animal food also was initiated during this time, peaking in 1960 at 4 million pounds, dropping to an average of 2 million pounds annually from 1965 to 1969, and finally falling to below 1 million pounds in 1970. Splitnose, darkblotched, striptail, greenstriped, and sharpchin rockfish were ground whole and quick frozen for use on "fur farms" (Miller and Hardwick 1973).

Beginning in 1963 foreign factory trawlers, primarily Soviet and Japanese vessels, were fishing off the West Coast, and by 1966 the fleet consisted of over 115 boats. Deeper-water rockfish species were being targeted off California, with Pacific Ocean perch (POP) being specifically targeted off Oregon and Washington. Catches of POP from the factory trawler fleet rose from 375 tons in 1965 to 20,500 tons in 1966, although there has been some speculation that these catches may not have been solely composed of POP, but of other rockfish species as well.

Overexploitation of United States fisheries by foreign vessels led to the development and implementation of the Fishery Conservation and Management Act, passed in 1976 (see the section entitled "Federal Management" for a more in-depth description on this Act). Between 1976 and 1994 our domestic fishing fleet continued to expand and exploit the nation's fisheries. Effective January 1, 1994 the PFMC divided the commercial groundfish fishery into two components: the limited entry fishery and the open access fishery. A federal limited entry permit is required to participate in the limited entry segment of the fishery with permits issued based on the fishing history of qualifying fishing vessels.

 The Gear Evolution

Fishing for rockfishes most likely began with hook-and-line gear hand-made by the areas native tribes out of available resources such as wood and root material. The following is a description of gear used by the native people in Sitka, Alaska around 1879. "The hook consists essentially of two pieces of wood fastened together at one end with strips of
spruce roots so as to form an acute angle with each other, the longer arm of the angle being armed with a bent, pointed piece of iron; the wood is generally carved so as to represent some animal whose cooperation thus secured will insure successful fishing." Also common was a method involving the use of the inflated stomach of a seal as a buoy attached to a set-line with one hook and a stone sinker (Goode 1887).

Conventional commercial fishing for rockfish began with the use of traditional hook-and-line gear, gill-nets with two inch mesh, set lines, each with about 150 hooks, and troll gear, called "trawl-lines" Each boat fishing with "trawl-line" gear would be equipped with 30-35 "bunches" of these lines, with 5-30 of the "bunches" with baited hooks, being laid out at a time. Set lines eventually evolved into the modern vertical and horizontal longline gear, while "trawl-line" gear became modern troll gear. The next evolutionary step was the importation of the Paranzella, which was the precedent to modern trawling gear and was introduced to the West Coast in San Francisco in 1876 (Coode, 1887). Paranzella gear (see Figure 11) was commonly used in Italy and Holland and off the Spanish and French coasts prior to its introduction into the United States and consisted of a seine-like net towed between two vessels with the tow lines diverging from the net and scraping along the bottom for a few fathoms along their length to stir up fish
from the bottom (Scofield 1948). This method of fishing, in which the nets were originally towed between two sailing vessels, was the standard method of trawling for the next 50 years until about 1919 when the use of otter boards on the trawl nets was introduced

FIGURE 11. TRAWLING GEAR IN CALIFORNIA

(Scofield, 1948). "Otter boards" were attached to the ends of a trawl net for the purpose of keeping the mouth of the net open wider (see Figure 12). This method, in which the net is set off the stern by unwinding it from a reel located on the deck and towed by one vessel, is basically the method of trawling being utilized today. The following quote portrays the sentiments of the fishing community at the time of the introduction of the Paranzella net to the West Coast, and seems to have set an eerie precedent for the relationship between trawl fishers and fishers of other gear types for well over the last hundred years.

"Previous to 1876 fishermen working with seines for the San Francisco market made very good wages, occasionally running as high as $25 per night for each seine. In 1876 some of the fishermen secretly ordered a drag-net to be made, and took it out for trial without the other fishermen knowing it. The experiment was entirely successful, and drag-nets have been used in San Francisco ever since. Their introduction naturally created quite
a stir among the other fishermen, especially among those who had previously supplied the market with tom-cod and flounders. Threats were made to burn both drag-nets and the large boats, which were used to pull them, and for several months it was necessary to keep watch over the "paranzellas There is still a great deal of opposition to the use of these nets, fishermen complaining that by means of them so many young fishes,

especially flounders, are destroyed that the fishing around San Francisco is thereby greatly injured." The author goes on to state: "The drag-nets destroy and waste immense quantities of fish, doubtless amounting to several hundred tons per year," and Goode (1887) expresses his personal concern with this method of fishing in the following: "It is certainly the most wasteful method of fishing I know. The use of such nets should be discontinued altogether, or the nets required to be of such coarse mesh as to allow the small fish to pass through."

Over time the drag-nets were enlarged and steam engines replaced the sailboats. In 1885 a larger steam vessel was introduced for trawling in San Francisco and continued as the primary method of trawling in this region for the next 45 years. Between 1924 and 1932 diesel engines replaced the steam design which resulted in vessels with more power
that could tow larger nets. This was a very significant event indeed, leading to heavier investments in boats and gear, which consequently allowed for the domination of the San Francisco fishery by two or three trawler companies. Gasoline engines were introduced to the West Coast fisheries in 1909 and have been credited with "paving the way" for a general enlargement in the use of trawl gear by allowing smaller boats to participate in the drag fishery without requiring such a substantial investment (Scofield 1948). One of the most relevant innovations for the trawl industry, as well as certain other gear types, was the development of hydraulic power and synthetic nets in the 1950s. This translated into new opportunities for fishing in areas that had previously been inaccessible due to the roughness of the bottom (J. Easley, Oregon Trawl Commission pers.comm.). Roller gear was instituted as early as the late 1960s and represented another significant development in trawl gear. Some of the first roller gear was anything that would roll, such as old hot water heaters or beer kegs (T. Morrison, OR Trawler, pers. comm). These gear modifications allow the net to either be catapulted over obstructions or to roll over the top of them. Like the introduction of hydraulic power and synthetic nets, roller gear has allowed fishers access to areas previously restricted on the basis of the roughness of
the bottom. Rock-hopper gear is an advanced design of roller gear instituted in the mid-1980s which opened up even more previously untrawlable areas to exploitation. In this type of design the discs on the footrope are usually between 12 and 24 inches in diameter and are not free to rotate (B. West NWFSC pers comm.). When the gear encounters an obstruction the "belly" of the net is catapulted over that obstruction.

In addition to bottom trawls, rockfish species are taken in midwater trawls. While the majority of midwater trawling focuses on hake there is a significant bycatch of some rockfish, such as yellowtail. This industry has taken steps to reduce this bycatch by informing each participating vessel where bycatch "are encountered to aid in their avoidance (D. Gunderson, UW, pers. comm.)

Improvements in the size and shape of the nets and in electronics for navigation and location of fish have been paralleling those evolutions detailed above. Instruments for assessing depth were introduced to the trawl industry about 1927, and by 1947 95 percent of all boats had the equipment (Scofield, 1948). Developments in shipboard electronics were substantial between 1970 and 1980, allowing both commercial and recreational fishers to see significant increases both in catch rates and landings of rockfish.

Investments into greater horsepower, and larger boats and gear have been made consistently over time by people hoping to equate this increase in capacity with more fish and greater economic returns. This has resulted in an overcapitalized fleet, requiring operating costs to increase as people struggle to catch enough fish to make boat payments on more technologically advanced boats, gear, etc. What this translates into is more stress placed on the resource to fulfill the needs of the investments made and the growing number of people participating in the fishery. During the 1980s major changes occurred in the groundfish fishery on the West Coast and rockfish landings increased
from 42 percent of total landings to 70 percent. Major factors in this increase were improvements in gear and technology resulting in a fishing fleet with harvesting capacity that "far exceeded the sustainable production capacity of the groundfish resource" (SAFE 1998). Another contributing factor to the increase of rockfish landings was the development in the late 1970s to early 1980s of the directed widow rockfish fishery. By as early as 1980 people involved in the fishery were recognizing red flags, the draft FMP for groundfish at that time stated the following: "...recently a series of events have occurred which are creating dramatic changes and are threatening the efficacy of the existing management regime. Regulatory and economic displacement of vessels from other fisheries and new vessels entering the fishery during the past years have resulted in substantial increases in fishing effort in the Washington, Oregon, and California groundfish fisheries". New technology, improved electronic navigation, and fish-finding equipment have tended to increase harvesting ability..." To summarize, during the 1980s the West Coast groundfish fishery expanded from a relatively small fishery harvesting surplus production to one with excess capacity and limited potential for long-term sustainability. These are, unfortunately, characteristics still plaguing the fishery today.

 Current techniques

Presently, rockfishes are fished with many different types of with gear, with the largest percentage being taken by trawl gear. This gear type was responsible for approximately 88 percent of the rockfish landings in 1997, with hook-and-line gear responsible for approximately 11 percent and troll gear and set nets for approximately 1 percent of the total landings (Figures 13 through 16) (PSMFC data). In addition to these methods, a basically undocumented number of rockfishes are being taken in the recently developed livefish fishery. Trawling for rockfishes can consist of dragging a net either along the oceandragging a net either along the ocean floor or through the water column, depending on the species being targeted. Hook-and-line gear includes rod and reel as well as vertical and horizontal longline gear. Longline gear basically consists of a length of line (rope or monofilament) with baited hooks attached at intervals (Figure 17). Vertical longline gear is positioned vertically in the water column by attaching a buoy to one end of the line and a weight at the other, while horizontal longline gear is positioned to lie flat along the bottom. The length of the line and number of hooks vary with the length of the set; 100-400 hooks for a short set, with sets inn excess of a mile in light for long sets. Both horizontal and vertical longline are marked at the surface by buoys, poles, and flags. Trollers (Figure 18) operate by rigging fishing lines to a pair of three to six inch diameter outriggers which, when lowered to a 45" angle, hold the fishing lines away from the boat. These lines have a length limit of 900 feet in California, however, there are no limits on the size or number of hooks used. This type of regulation could exert some control over the number of undersized fish captured, thus reducing bycatch (Sea Grant 1981). The gear for the livefish fishery can be extremely varied primarily due to the relative inexpense of participation. Hook-and-line gear of some type is primarily utilized, however, other gear has been developed specifically for use in this fishery. "Stick gear" was popular in the livefish fishery until it was recently outlawed by CDFG. A ridged "pole" comprised the gear, which consisted of hooks attached to metal or PVC filled with sand or lead. People now utilize materials such as telephone cable to replace the out-lawed ridged metal or PVC. The length of the pole varies, but is usually no longer than 10 feet with no more than 150 hooks permitted to be attached. This entire apparatus lies on the bottom with a surface buoy marking it and some manner for it to be attached to the boat (P. Kline pers. comm.).

 What Happens to Rockfish Once They Are Caught?

The length of fishing trip for rockfish varies, and can last up to six days contingent on the size of the vessel and thetype of gear used. After being brought on board the fish are often iced down until they can be delivered to a processor. Both the boats and processors sort the catch by certain species, although sorting does not always occur down to the species level, although the Council requires sorting of all rockfish species with individual optimum yields (OYs). This creates a problem because the landings of many species of rockfish are not being tracked, which means a stock could be in an overfished condition without anyone noticing. In the November 1998 issue of Pacific Fishing magazine Susan Chambers writes "Based on interviews with unloaders, state agency officials, and fishermen, one rough estimate for West Coast trawlers suggests that 80% of the vessels bring in 50 to 200 pounds of unmarketable fish per trip. Assuming the fleet makes two trips a month, the dockside undocumented loss amounts to between 100 and 468 metric tons of discarded fish that go to a reduction plant or become sea lion food each year. These are fish unaccounted for in the at-sea discard estimates, which use logbook and observer information."

Boats are paid per pound for the fish brought in, with the prices varying depending on species and market conditions. Trawl-caught fish are typically kept on ice until they can be taken to the fillet line, where they may be weighed a second time, depending on the processor. Pacific Coast Seafoods in Warrenton, OR have an incentive program for
their filleters to take into account poundage, recovery and qualitp, based on a ratio of the weight of the whole fish to the weight of the fillets (W. Forsman, Pacific Coast Seafoods pers. comm.). After being filleted, the fish are skinned and packed for distribution. Ninety percent of rockfish are shipped fresh to distributors and direct markets with the other ten percent shipped frozen. In the case of Pacific Coast Seafoods in Warrenton, the waste products from the processing, such as carcasses, get shipped to BioOregon, a company in Oregon that converts it into fish meal. Not all rockfishes are filleted, specialty markets in California have been increasing the demand for rockfishes sold whole,